CBSE Class 6- Science Chapter 12: Beyond Earth – Study Notes (PDF)

Study Notes: Beyond Earth (Class 6-NCERT(Curiosity) Science

1. Introduction to Stargazing

• Ideal Locations: Regions with minimal air and light pollution, like Nubra in Ladakh, India, offer exceptionally clear views of the night sky, revealing thousands of stars.
• Historical Significance: For centuries, people have observed stars, creating stories and finding patterns. In ancient times, recognizing specific stars and patterns was a crucial skill for navigation, used by sailors, travelers, and caravans to find direction before the invention of the magnetic compass.

2. Stars and Constellations

• Stars: Celestial bodies that shine with their own light. They vary in brightness, with some appearing bright and others dim.
• Constellations (Historical Definition): Groups of stars that appear to form patterns resembling familiar animals, objects, or characters from stories. Different cultures developed their own names and stories for these patterns.
• Constellations (Modern Definition): In the early twentieth century, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) officially defined 88 constellations, dividing the entire sky into distinct regions. While the term still commonly refers to the star patterns, its official definition is these designated areas of the sky.

Key Constellations and Stars

Name	Description / Key Features	Associated Stars	Indian Names	Cultural Interpretations
Orion	Represented as a hunter.	Three bright stars in the middle form the “belt”. Contains Betelgeuse.	Betelgeuse: Ārdrā	Often imagined battling the bull, Taurus.
Canis Major	The hunter Orion’s dog.	Contains Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky.	N/A	Follows Orion in mythological depictions.
Taurus	Represented as a bull.	Contains Aldebaran and the Pleiades star cluster.	Aldebaran: Rohiṇī; Pleiades: Kṛittikā	The bull being battled by Orion.
Ursa Major	Contains the Big Dipper pattern.	The seven stars of the Big Dipper.	Big Dipper: Saptaṛiṣhi	Central India tribes: “grandmother’s cot” with thieves. Konkan fishermen: a boat.
Ursa Minor	Contains the Little Dipper pattern.	Contains Polaris (Pole Star).	Pole Star: Dhruva tārā	N/A

• The Pole Star (Polaris): A part of the Little Dipper constellation. It is significant because it appears stationary in the North direction in the Northern Hemisphere, making it a reliable tool for locating North. It is not a very bright star.

3. Night Sky Watching: Techniques and Challenges

• Challenges:
  • Light Pollution: The presence of excessive artificial light at night, which is growing globally and reduces the visibility of celestial objects.
  • Atmospheric Conditions: Smoke, dust, and clouds can obscure the view.
  • Obstructions: Tall buildings and trees in urban areas can block the view of the sky.
• Best Practices for Observation:
  • Location: Choose a dark, open area away from city lights, buildings, and trees.
  • Timing: Select a clear, cloudless, and moonless night for best visibility, especially for dimmer objects like the Pole Star.
  • Preparation: Use sky mapping apps (e.g., Sky Map, Stellarium) or printed charts to know what to look for and where. A magnetic compass can help find directions.
  • Eye Adjustment: Allow your eyes about 30 minutes to adjust to the darkness to see the sky better.
  • Safety: Always go with an adult to a dark, open place at night.

How to Locate Key Objects

1. The Pole Star: First, locate the Big Dipper. Imagine a straight line passing through the two stars at the end of the Big Dipper’s “cup.” Extend this line northward about five times the distance between those two stars, and it will lead to the Pole Star.
2. Orion and Sirius: Orion is best viewed in India from December to April after sunset. Identify its “belt”—three bright stars in a short, straight line. To find Sirius, imagine a line passing through the three belt stars and look along this line towards the east. This line points directly to Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky.

4. Our Solar System

The Solar System is composed of the Sun, eight planets, their moons, and smaller objects like asteroids and comets.

The Sun

• Nature: The Sun is a star, the one closest to Earth. It is an extremely hot, spherical ball of gases that produces its own heat and light.
• Importance: It is the main source of energy for Earth, responsible for climate, seasons, the water cycle, and sustaining life. Sunlight is essential for plants to grow.
• Size and Distance: The Sun’s diameter is about 100 times that of Earth. It is approximately 150 million km away. This distance is defined as one astronomical unit (au).
• Apparent Size: The Sun appears much larger and brighter than other stars because it is much closer to us. The next nearest star, Proxima Centauri, is about 269,000 au away.

Planets

• Definition: A large, nearly spherical object that revolves around the Sun.
• Motion: Planets have two primary motions: revolution (moving around the Sun) and rotation (spinning on an axis). Earth’s revolution takes about one year, and its rotation takes about 24 hours (a day).
• The Eight Planets (in order from the Sun): Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.

Category	Planets	Characteristics
Inner Planets	Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars	Smaller in size with solid, rocky surfaces.
Outer Planets	Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune	Much larger, primarily made of gases (gas giants), and have ring systems made of dust and rock.

• Distinguishing Planets from Stars: In the night sky, planets can be distinguished from stars because stars appear to twinkle significantly more.
• Dwarf Planets: Objects like Pluto, which were once considered planets, were reclassified as dwarf planets by the IAU in 2006.

Other Solar System Objects

• Natural Satellites (Moons): Objects that revolve around planets. Earth has one moon, Mars has two, and the outer planets have many.
  • Earth’s Moon: Takes about 27 days to revolve around Earth. It is about 384,000 km away and has a diameter roughly a quarter of Earth’s. Its surface is covered in craters from asteroid impacts, which remain for a long time due to the lack of atmosphere or water.
• Asteroids: Small, rocky, and irregularly shaped objects that revolve around the Sun. Most are located in the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
• Comets: Objects made of dust, gases, rocks, and ice that come from the outer regions of the Solar System. As a comet nears the Sun, its frozen materials evaporate, forming a long tail. Halley’s Comet is a famous example, appearing every 76 years.

5. Beyond the Solar System

• The Milky Way Galaxy: Our home galaxy, which contains our Solar System. It appears as a faint, extended band of light across the night sky from a dark location. A galaxy contains millions to billions of stars. In India, it is known as Ākāśha Gangā.
• The Universe: Contains many other galaxies beyond the Milky Way. Scientists study these to understand the cosmos.
• Exoplanets and Life: The search for life beyond Earth is currently focused on exoplanets (planets revolving around other stars). To date, no evidence of extraterrestrial life has been found.

6. Space Exploration and Observatories

• India’s Moon Missions (Chandrayaan):
  • Chandrayaan-1 (2008): India’s first mission to the Moon.
  • Chandrayaan-2 (2019): Second mission.
  • Chandrayaan-3 (2023): Successfully soft-landed near the Moon’s south pole on August 23, 2023, making India the first country to do so. This date is now celebrated as National Space Day in India.
  • Chandrayaan-4: A planned mission to bring back samples from the Moon.
• Observatories:
  • Indian Astronomical Observatory, Hanle: Located in Ladakh on Mount Saraswati, it is one of the highest observatories in the world.
  • Hanle Dark Sky Reserve (HDSR): Established in December 2022 to preserve dark skies for research and promote astro-tourism.

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Short-Answer Quiz (25 Questions)

Instructions: Answer each question in 2-3 complete sentences.

1. Why is a region like Nubra in Ladakh considered excellent for night sky watching?
2. What was the primary practical use of constellations in ancient times?
3. How does the modern definition of a constellation differ from the historical one?
4. Describe the constellation Orion as it is commonly imagined.
5. What is Sirius, and which constellation is it a part of?
6. Explain the significance of the Pole Star (Polaris) for navigation.
7. What is light pollution and what effect does it have on stargazing?
8. Why is the Pole Star not visible from the southern hemisphere?
9. List three essential preparations for a successful night sky watching session.
10. Describe the method to locate the Pole Star using the Big Dipper.
11. What is the Sun composed of, and why is it considered a star?
12. Define an astronomical unit (au) and state its approximate value.
13. Why does the Sun appear much larger than other stars, even those that are bigger in size?
14. What is the difference between a planet’s revolution and its rotation?
15. Name the four inner planets and describe their common characteristics.
16. Name the four outer planets and describe their common characteristics.
17. Why is Mars often referred to as the “Red Planet”?
18. What is a dwarf planet, and why was Pluto reclassified as one?
19. How can an observer on Earth distinguish a planet from a star in the night sky?
20. Describe the surface of Earth’s Moon and explain how its features were formed.
21. What was the major achievement of India’s Chandrayaan-3 mission?
22. What are asteroids and where are most of them located in the Solar System?
23. Explain what causes a comet to form a visible tail.
24. What is the Milky Way Galaxy?
25. What is an exoplanet, and why are scientists interested in studying them?

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Multiple-Choice Quiz (20 Questions)

Instructions: Choose the single best answer for each question.

1. According to the IAU, how many official constellations divide the sky? a) 76 b) 88 c) 100 d) 150
2. What is the brightest star in the night sky? a) Pole Star b) Betelgeuse c) Aldebaran d) Sirius
3. The Big Dipper is a pattern within which larger constellation? a) Canis Major b) Ursa Minor c) Ursa Major d) Taurus
4. Which star appears stationary in the sky and is used to find the North direction? a) Sirius b) Proxima Centauri c) Polaris d) Aldebaran
5. The presence of excessive artificial light at night is known as: a) Air pollution b) Light pollution c) Sound pollution d) Sky pollution
6. What is the approximate distance from the Earth to the Sun? a) 384,000 km b) 150 million km c) 269,000 au d) 76 million km
7. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the inner planets? a) They are smaller in size. b) They have solid surfaces. c) They are mostly made of gases. d) They include Earth and Mars.
8. Which planet is called the “Evening Star” or “Morning Star”? a) Mercury b) Mars c) Jupiter d) Venus
9. The Moon completes one revolution around the Earth in approximately: a) 24 hours b) 27 days c) 30 days d) 365 days
10. The asteroid belt is located between the orbits of which two planets? a) Earth and Mars b) Mars and Jupiter c) Jupiter and Saturn d) Saturn and Uranus
11. What is the name of India’s home galaxy? a) Andromeda b) Hanle Galaxy c) Ākāśha Gangā d) Saptaṛiṣhi
12. India’s National Space Day is celebrated on which date to mark the success of Chandrayaan-3? a) July 23 b) August 23 c) December 22 d) October 23
13. Halley’s Comet appears in the sky approximately every: a) 27 years b) 50 years c) 76 years d) 100 years
14. What are the circular, bowl-like structures on the Moon’s surface called? a) Valleys b) Craters c) Mountains d) Asteroids
15. Which of the following can be used to view dim celestial objects not visible to the naked eye? a) Magnetic compass b) Binoculars c) Telescope d) Both b and c
16. The Indian Astronomical Observatory is located in: a) Nubra b) Hanle, Ladakh c) Konkan Coast d) Central India
17. Which planet is known as the “Blue Planet” due to the large amount of water on its surface? a) Neptune b) Uranus c) Venus d) Earth
18. In Indian astronomy, the star Aldebaran is known as: a) Ārdrā b) Kṛittikā c) Rohiṇī d) Dhruva tārā
19. Which celestial bodies are composed of dust, gases, rocks, and ice and originate from the outer solar system? a) Asteroids b) Planets c) Comets d) Moons
20. The star closest to our Solar System is: a) Sirius b) Proxima Centauri c) Betelgeuse d) The Pole Star

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Answer Keys

Short-Answer Quiz Answer Key

1. Nubra in Ladakh is excellent for sky watching because it has almost cloudless weather and very little air or light pollution. This results in a very clear night sky where thousands of stars are visible.
2. In ancient times, constellations were used as a crucial tool for navigation. Sailors, travelers, and caravans used the recognizable star patterns to find directions at sea or on land before modern technology existed.
3. Historically, a constellation referred to a group of stars forming a pattern. The modern, official definition by the IAU refers to one of 88 internationally agreed-upon regions of the sky, which include these star patterns.
4. The constellation Orion is often represented as a hunter. It features three bright stars in a short, straight line in the middle, which represent the hunter’s belt.
5. Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky. It is located in the constellation Canis Major, which is often imagined as the hunter Orion’s dog.
6. The Pole Star is significant because it appears to remain stationary in the North direction in the Northern Hemisphere. This provides a constant and reliable reference point for locating the direction North.
7. Light pollution is the presence of excessive artificial light during the night. It brightens the night sky, which reduces the contrast of stars and other celestial objects, making them much harder to see.
8. The Pole Star is located in the sky directly above the Earth’s North Pole. Because of the Earth’s curvature, an observer in the southern hemisphere cannot see this part of the northern sky, so the Pole Star is always below their horizon.
9. Three essential preparations are: identifying a dark open area away from lights and obstructions, choosing a clear, moonless night, and using a sky map or app to know what to look for.
10. To find the Pole Star, first locate the Big Dipper. Identify the two stars at the end of its “cup” and imagine a straight line passing through them. The Pole Star is found by extending this imaginary line about five times the distance between those two stars.
11. The Sun is an extremely hot, spherical ball of gases. It is considered a star because, like other stars, it produces a huge amount of its own energy, which it gives out as heat and light.
12. An astronomical unit (au) is a unit of measurement used for distances within the solar system. It is defined as the approximate distance between the Sun and the Earth, which is about 150 million km.
13. The Sun appears much larger and brighter than other stars simply because it is much closer to Earth. Other stars are so far away that they appear as points of light, even if they are physically much larger than our Sun.
14. Revolution is the movement of an object around another, larger object, such as the Earth moving around the Sun. Rotation is the spinning of an object on its own axis, which for Earth causes day and night.
15. The four inner planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Their common characteristics are that they are smaller in size and have solid, rocky surfaces.
16. The four outer planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Their common characteristics are that they are much larger than the inner planets, are mostly made of gases, and have large, flat ring-like structures around them.
17. Mars is called the “Red Planet” because it appears red in the sky. This reddish color is due to the soil on the Martian surface, which is reddish in color.
18. A dwarf planet is a celestial body that revolves around the sun but does not meet all the criteria to be defined as a planet. Pluto was reclassified by the IAU in 2006 after more small objects like it were discovered, leading to a new, more specific definition of a planet.
19. The main way to distinguish a planet from a star is that stars appear to twinkle a lot, whereas planets do not. This is because planets are closer and appear as tiny disks, while stars are so far away they are point sources of light easily disturbed by Earth’s atmosphere.
20. The Moon’s surface is marked by circular, bowl-like structures called craters. These craters were formed by the impact of asteroids or rocks from space hitting the Moon’s surface over billions of years.
21. The Chandrayaan-3 mission’s major achievement was its successful soft-landing on the Moon on August 23, 2023. This made India the first country in the world to achieve a landing near the Moon’s little-explored south pole.
22. Asteroids are small, rocky, and irregularly shaped objects within our Solar System. The majority of them are found revolving around the Sun in a region called the asteroid belt, located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
23. A comet’s tail is formed as it approaches the Sun. The heat from the Sun causes the frozen materials in the comet, such as ice, to evaporate, and this evaporating material of gas and dust forms the visible tail.
24. The Milky Way Galaxy is our home galaxy, a vast system containing millions to billions of stars. Our Solar System is just one part of this galaxy, which is visible from Earth as a faint band of light across the night sky.
25. An exoplanet is a planet that has been discovered revolving around a star other than our Sun. Scientists are interested in them because the search for life elsewhere in the universe has been primarily directed toward these planets.

Multiple-Choice Quiz Answer Key

1. b) 88
2. d) Sirius
3. c) Ursa Major
4. c) Polaris
5. b) Light pollution
6. b) 150 million km
7. c) They are mostly made of gases.
8. d) Venus
9. b) 27 days
10. b) Mars and Jupiter
11. c) Ākāśha Gangā
12. b) August 23
13. c) 76 years
14. b) Craters
15. d) Both b and c
16. b) Hanle, Ladakh
17. d) Earth
18. c) Rohiṇī
19. c) Comets
20. b) Proxima Centauri

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Essay Questions and Answers (For Teachers)

1. Explain the historical and modern importance of constellations, providing specific examples of both.

• Answer: Historically, constellations were vital for navigation. Before the invention of the magnetic compass or other technology, sailors and travelers on land relied on recognizing star patterns to determine direction. For instance, caravans passing through Nubra used specific stars to find their way. The Pole Star, being fixed in the North, was a particularly important navigational aid. In modern times, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) has standardized the sky by defining 88 official constellations. These are now defined as specific regions of the sky, which helps astronomers universally map and locate celestial objects for research and observation. While the patterns like Orion the Hunter or the Big Dipper are still used for easy identification, the official definition is a precise division of the celestial sphere.

2. Describe the composition and key components of our Solar System.

• Answer: Our Solar System is a gravitationally bound system centered around the Sun. The Sun, a star, is the largest and heaviest object, producing almost all the energy in the system. The system includes eight planets: the four inner, rocky planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) and the four outer gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune). In addition to planets, there are natural satellites, or moons, that revolve around most planets; Earth has one and Mars has two, while the outer planets have many. The Solar System also contains numerous smaller objects. These include asteroids, which are small, rocky bodies mostly found in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, and comets, which are icy-rocky bodies from the outer solar system that develop tails as they near the Sun.

3. Compare and contrast the Sun with other stars visible in the night sky from Earth’s perspective.

• Answer: The Sun is a star, just like the billions of other stars in our galaxy. It is a hot, spherical ball of gases that produces its own light and heat. The primary difference from Earth’s perspective is its proximity. The Sun is the closest star to us, at a distance of about 150 million km. This closeness makes it appear as a large, bright disk that lights up our entire sky during the day and provides the heat necessary for life. Other stars, while they may be much larger and hotter than our Sun, are immensely farther away. This vast distance makes them appear as small, twinkling points of light in the night sky. During the daytime, the Sun’s extreme brightness completely overwhelms the faint light from these distant stars, making them impossible to see.

4. What is light pollution, and how does it impact both scientific research and public enjoyment of the night sky? What measures are being taken to combat it?

• Answer: Light pollution is the presence of excessive or misdirected artificial light at night. It significantly impacts our ability to see the night sky by brightening it and reducing the contrast between stars and the background, making dimmer objects invisible. This hinders public enjoyment of natural celestial beauty and poses a serious problem for scientific research, as astronomers require dark skies to study faint objects like distant galaxies. To combat this, some dark sky reserves and parks have been established around the world, such as the Hanle Dark Sky Reserve in Ladakh. In these reserves, light pollution is actively controlled to preserve dark skies for astronomical research and to promote astro-tourism.

5. Detail the characteristics of Earth’s Moon, including its size, distance, surface features, and orbital period. Also, summarize India’s efforts in lunar exploration.

• Answer: The Moon is Earth’s only natural satellite. It is about 384,000 km away from Earth and has a diameter roughly one-quarter that of our planet. The Moon takes approximately 27 days to complete one revolution around the Earth. Its surface is characterized by a lack of atmosphere and is covered with many circular, bowl-like structures called craters, which were formed by the impacts of asteroids and other space rocks. India has undertaken significant efforts in lunar exploration through its Chandrayaan program. Chandrayaan-1 was launched in 2008, followed by Chandrayaan-2 in 2019. The most notable success was Chandrayaan-3, which in 2023 made India the first nation to achieve a soft landing near the Moon’s south pole. A fourth mission, Chandrayaan-4, is being planned to retrieve lunar samples.

6. Describe the process of locating the constellations Orion and Canis Major, and the star Sirius. Include the best time of year for viewing and the specific visual cues to look for.

• Answer: In India, the constellation Orion is best viewed during the months of December to April after sunset. The easiest way to find Orion is to first look for its most prominent feature: three bright stars in a short, straight line, which represent the hunter’s belt. Once Orion is identified, locating the bright star Sirius in the nearby constellation Canis Major becomes simple. One must imagine a straight line passing through the three middle stars of Orion’s belt and extend this line towards the east. This imaginary line points directly to Sirius, which is the brightest star in the entire night sky.

7. Differentiate between asteroids and comets based on their composition, origin, and appearance.

• Answer: Asteroids and comets are both smaller objects in the Solar System, but they differ significantly. Asteroids are primarily small, rocky, and irregular in shape, with sizes ranging from 10 meters to 500 km. Most of them are found in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Comets, on the other hand, are visitors from the outer regions of the Solar System and are composed of a mixture of dust, gases, rocks, and ice. Their appearance is distinct because as they approach the Sun, the heat causes their ice to evaporate, forming a long, glowing tail that is not present on asteroids.

8. Explain the hierarchy of cosmic structures, from the Solar System to the Universe, as described in the text.

• Answer: The text describes a nested hierarchy of cosmic structures. The smallest of these is our Solar System, which consists of our Sun, eight planets, their moons, asteroids, and comets. Our Solar System, in turn, is just one small part of a much larger structure called the Milky Way Galaxy. A galaxy is a massive collection of millions to billions of stars. Finally, the Universe encompasses everything, including many other galaxies that exist in the vastness of outer space beyond our own Milky Way.

9. What makes Venus and Mars unique among the planets visible from Earth? Describe their key features and nicknames.

• Answer: Venus is unique because it is the brightest object in the sky after the Sun and the Moon. It is commonly called the “Morning Star” or the “Evening Star” because it is usually seen shining brightly at dawn or dusk, even though it is a planet, not a star. Mars is unique for its distinct coloration. It is called the “Red Planet” because the soil on its surface is reddish in color, giving the planet a noticeable red appearance when viewed from Earth.

10. What is the Hanle Dark Sky Reserve, and why is its location significant for astronomy in India?

• Answer: The Hanle Dark Sky Reserve (HDSR) is an area surrounding the Indian Astronomical Observatory in Hanle, Ladakh, where light pollution is controlled to preserve dark skies. Its location is significant because the region provides excellent weather conditions for astronomy. The observatory itself is situated atop Mount Saraswati, making it one of the highest observatories in the world, above much of the distorting atmosphere. The establishment of the HDSR not only protects this prime location for scientific research with instruments like the Himalayan Chandra Telescope but also aims to promote astro-tourism by training local people as “Astronomy Ambassadors.”

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Glossary

Term	Definition
Ākāśha Gangā	The Indian name for the Milky Way Galaxy.
Asteroid	A small, rocky, and irregularly shaped object that revolves around the Sun, mostly found in the asteroid belt.
Asteroid Belt	The region in the Solar System between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where most asteroids are found.
Astronomical Unit (au)	A unit for expressing distances within the solar system, approximately equal to the distance between the Sun and the Earth (about 150 million km).
Big Dipper	A distinct pattern of seven stars that is part of the constellation Ursa Major. Known as Saptaṛiṣhi in India.
Comet	An object made of dust, gases, rocks, and ice from the outer Solar System that develops a long tail as it approaches the Sun.
Constellation	Officially, one of the 88 regions into which the sky is divided. Commonly, a group of stars that appear to form a recognizable pattern.
Craters	Circular, bowl-like structures on the surface of the Moon, mostly formed by the impact of asteroids or rocks.
Dwarf Planet	A celestial body, such as Pluto, that revolves around the Sun but does not meet all the criteria defined by the IAU to be classified as a planet.
Exoplanet	A planet discovered revolving around a star other than our Sun.
Galaxy	A massive system containing millions to billions of stars. Our home galaxy is the Milky Way.
Light Pollution	The presence of excessive artificial light at night time, which reduces the visibility of objects in the night sky.
Little Dipper	A star pattern located in the constellation Ursa Minor, which contains the Pole Star.
Milky Way Galaxy	Our home galaxy, which includes the Solar System. It is visible as a faint band of light across the night sky.
Moon	A natural satellite of a planet. Earth’s Moon is its only natural satellite.
Planet	A large, nearly spherical object that revolves around the Sun.
Pole Star (Polaris)	The star that appears stationary in the North direction in the Northern Hemisphere, part of the Little Dipper.
Revolution	The movement of an object around another, much larger object, such as a planet moving around the Sun.
Rotation	The spinning of an object about its own axis.
Satellite	An object that moves around a planet. Can be natural (a moon) or artificial.
Sirius	The brightest star in the night sky, located in the constellation Canis Major.
Solar System	The collection of the Sun, eight planets, their moons, and smaller objects like asteroids and comets.
Stars	Celestial bodies that shine with their own light.
Sun	The star at the center of our Solar System, which is the main source of energy for Earth.
Telescope	An instrument used to view distant objects, making them appear brighter and larger.
Universe	The entirety of space and everything it contains, including all galaxies.